Research

Theory

Hope Squad's programming is built on two important theories: Kalafat and Elias's findings around peer-to-peer disclosure of suicide risk and Joiner's Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.

In 1992, researchers John Kalafat and Maurice Elias investigated how high school students respond after learning about a peer’s suicidality. They found that only 25% of students indicated confiding in a trusted adult about their peer’s suicide risk, revealing the opportunity of peer-to-peer suicide prevention.

Thomas Joiner, an American psychologist and leading expert on suicide, founded the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide. In his book, Why People Die by Suicide, Joiner describes three mechanisms which, in tandem, identify those at risk for completing suicide: perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, and capability for suicide.

Three-circle Venn Diagram showing how suicide or near-lethal suicide attempts happen at the intersection of Thwarted Belongingness, Burdensomeness, and Capability for Suicide.

Joiner’s research further argues how this theory can be applied to suicide prevention in schools by way of addressing student concerns related to perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belonging.

In 2012, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) published a toolkit that reinforces the value of programs like Hope Squad in helping schools prevent suicide.

Hope Squad members are student-nominated, trusted peers taught how to listen and refer students in need to a trusted adult—without judgement. Hope Squad integrates intentional outreach to increase feelings of belonging to all students regardless of their emotional state, mental health, or suicide risk.

Research Partners

Research is fundamental to Hope Squad’s mission and is integral to the ongoing development and successful delivery of the evidence-based programming. We partner with academic researchers and other subject matter experts to evaluate and continuously improve our programming.

Theory References

Kalafat, J., & Elias. M. (1992). Adolescents' experience with and response to suicidal peers. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 22(3), 315-321. Link
Joiner, T. E. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.‍
Joiner, T. E. (2009). Suicide prevention in schools as viewed through the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior. School Psychology Review, 38(2), 244–248. Link
Mazza, J. J, & Reynolds, W.M. (2008). School-wide approaches to prevention of and intervention for depression and suicidal behaviors. In Doll, B. & Cummings, J.A., Transforming school mental health services: Population-based approaches to promoting the competency and wellness of children (pp. 213–241). Sage Publications.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2012, June). Preventing suicide: A toolkit for high schools. Link
Surgenor, P. W. G., Quinn, P., & Hughes, C. (2016). Ten recommendations for effective school-based, adolescent, suicide prevention programs. School Mental Health, 8(4) 413–424. Link

Findings

In review of the 2023-2024 Mental Health Referral Form, over 95% of referrals come from non-Hope Squad members, indicating that our peer-to-peer gatekeeper training model effectively increases intentional help-seeking behaviors throughout the school environment.

Peer-Reviewed Publications

For full access to the publications below, contact [email protected].

Wood, D. S., Ohri, F., Hudnall, G., & Cahoon, L. (2023). Suicide gatekeeper training outcomes in educational and religious settings. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 33(2), 225-231. Link
Wright-Berryman, J., Thompson, D., & Cramer, R. J. (2022). Reducing suicide-related stigma through peer-to-peer school-based suicide prevention programming. Children & Schools, 44(4) 1-8. Link
Wright-Berryman, J., Hudnall, G., Bledsoe, C., & Lloyd, M. (2019). Suicide concern reporting among Utah youths served by a school-based peer-to-peer prevention program. Children & Schools, 41(1), 35-42. Link
Wright-Berryman, J., Hudnall, G., Hopkins, R., & Bledsoe, C. (2018). Hope Squads: Peer-to-peer suicide prevention in schools [Practice Highlights]. Children & Schools, 40(2), 125-126. Link
Hansen, A., Heath, M. A., Williams, M., Fox, J., Hudnall, G. A., & Bledsoe, C. (2012). No-suicide contracts with suicidal youth: Mental health professionals’ perceptions and current practice. Contemporary School Psychology, 16(1), 145–159. Link
Heath, M. A. & Hudnall, G. (2011). Special issue on strengthening school-based support for bereaved students: Editors’ introduction. School Psychology International, 32(2), 115-116. Link